Ottoman Architecture: A Travel Through Time Essay

The Ottomans are among the great builders in history. Their architecture is basically focused on the building of mosques which were not only meant for religious purposes but also to undertake social functions. Among the architects who built a name in the Ottoman empire is Sinan, the imperial architect. As the head architect of the Ottoman empire during Sultan Suleyman’s reign, he designed mosques that exemplified beauty and grace. He derived his inspiration from the Byzantine Empire’s Hagia Sophia. The paper contains a discussion of the development of Ottoman architecture. It traces the roots of the Ottoman craft from Iznik tiles and moves on to the classical period or the golden age Ottoman architecture, the period of Western influence, the revival of 14th and 15th century designs and the trends that affected 19th century Ottoman architecture. It also elaborates on the prevalent designs during these periods and how they were achieved. At the end of the paper, there is a short discussion of the Byzantine cistern, the Yerebatan Sarnici or the sinking palace. Ottoman Architecture: A Travel Through Time The Ottoman Empire is considered as one of the greatest and most powerful civilizations that thrived in the modern period, encompassing the early fourteenth century lasting into the twentieth century. The empire’s moment of glory in the sixteenth century represents one of the heights of human optimism, artistry and creativity. They built the â€Å"largest and most influential Muslim empires of the modern world†,influencing the Muslim world as well and Europe in their military expansions (Hooker, 1996). There are two sources of Ottoman architecture: the development of new architectural forms in Anatolia, particularly Manisa, Iznik, Bursa and Seeuk during the 14th and 15th centuries and Christian art (Telerama, n. d. ). The early Ottoman period which started in the 14th century was the peak of Turkish architecture. During this period Ottoman art was in search for new ideas to form a certain style it can call its own. In this quest for its own identity, single-domed, tiered and sublime-angled mosques were given birth (Sansal, 2008). Many arts were also developed during this period such as the production of Iznik tiles, used in decorating mosques and other buildings. Artists from Tabriz introduced to the Ottoman empire the technique of creating the tiles. According to Goodwin (cited in Telerama, n. d. ), the floral motifs of Iznik tiles were utilized to symbolize a common motif of Islamic art—paradise garden. From Iznik tiles, Ottoman architecture gradually developed to give way to the classical architectural style or the of the â€Å"era of the domes†. This period started when the Ottoman empire captured Constantinople, the seat of eastern Christendom and making it its capital. It is here where they introduced various innovations in the arts and architecture. The Ottoman rule in Constantinople led to the transformation of the great Byzantine church, the Hagia Sophia, to an imperial mosque. This architectural became the source of inspiration of the Ottoman architects (Yalman, n. d. ). The Great Mosque or the Ulu Cami which was built in Bursa is the first Seljuk mosque that was converted into a dome. During this period, the building of Christian churches and the renovation of those in disrepair was prohibited by the Ottomans. The Ottoman rulers only tolerated the building of mosques for their Muslim faith. During this period, the plans of the mosques included inner and outward courtyards. The inner courtyard is inseparable from the mosque. More than just a place of worship, mosques during the Ottoman period were looked upon by society as an interconnection of city planning and communal life. As evident in the pictures of structures during this period, beside the mosque were soup kitchens, hospitals, theological schools, Turkish baths and tombs (Sansal, 2008). The architectural style during the late 14th and 15th centuries illustrate mosques with a large dome on a drum over a prayer hall that has a rectangular shape. Others include mosques with two domes in a single line. Steirlin said that â€Å"the two main domes, set one behind the other, are the distinguishing feature of a form of mosque that prevailed in the Ottoman world (cited in Telerama, n. d. ). Mehmed II, sixth successor to the Ottoman throne, ascended the Ottoman throne in 1444, ending his reign in 1481. During his rule, he introduced an ambitious rebuilding program for the empire. He tasked his architects to construct palaces and mosques, where the people could hold spiritual and social activities. Among the notable structures built during this period were the Old palace, the Topkapi palace and Fatih complex (Yalman, n. d. ). The Topkapi palace, built in 1478, served as the home of the sultans and the center of the Ottoman government for four hundred years. Being the seat of power for a long time, the original design of the palace changed through time. The architects during this period drew inspiration from Byzantine, Turkic and Perso-Islamic artistic repertoires. Aside from these art forms, the Ottoman architects were also swayed by Renaissance art. Mehmed II was fascinated with the development of art in western Europe as well as Iranian art. As a result thereof, European and Iranian artists infiltrated the Ottoman court and affected the kind of art and structures that were built during this period (Yalman, n. d. ). However, Mehmed II’s building programs only indicated the start of the flourishing of art and architecture in the Ottoman society. The Ottoman empire reached its zenith of splendor and power during the reign of Sultan Suleyman I, also known as â€Å"The Magnificent†. Being an avid fan of the arts and architecture, Ottoman architecture also began to take shape during his rule. Sinan, his architect, dominated Ottoman art. He patterned the structures that he built after Byzantine traditions and derived great influence from Hagia Sophia (MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2008). Mosques and religious complexes were built by Sinan and hundreds of public buildings were erected throughout the Ottoman empire. These buildings contributed to the dissemination and flourishing of Ottoman culture to the world (Yalman, n. d. ). Sinan built more than 300 structures in the Ottoman empire. He constructed at least 120 buildings in Constantinople and another 200 widely scattered across the empire. As the imperial architect, he took Ottoman architecture to new heights of style and grace (Whiting, 2000). Among the famous structures that he built were the following: the Sehzade kulliye (1548), and the Suleyman kulliye (after 1550) and his masterpiece, the Selim mosque at Edrine, Tur (1569-1575). These buildings reflect clarity and logic in plan and elevation. Every part was intended for a purpose and contributes to the whole structure, no unnecessary element was added. The central feature of architecture during the reign of Sinan is the dome; everything that was added to the building should complement and subordinate it. A cascade of descending half domes buttresses and vaults as well as open spaces were the prevalent designs during this period. The masterpieces which Sinan created was â€Å"the final perfection of two great traditions: a stylistic and aesthetic tradition that had been indigenous to Istanbul since the construction of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and the other Islamic tradition of domical construction dating to the 10th century† (The Ottomans, 2002). The simple yet aesthetic touch that Ottoman architects exhibited in their craft is due to their military training. Sinan and other Ottoman architects were initially trained to be military engineers (The Ottomans, 2002). Sinan was the chief architect of the Ottoman empire. He drew his inspiration from the Hagia Sophia, a 1000 year old Christian Basilica of the Byzantine empire. In creating his masterpiece, the Suleymaniye Mosque (1550-57) in Istanbul, he achieved the effect of light through the use of 138 arched windows. He also used a rich marble sheathing and stalactite decorations. Sinan also adopted the design of Hagia Sophia, adding a little twist. Instead of a central-domed square with two flanking half domes, he created a complete square and surmounted it with a big central dome which he set on a high drum and ringed it with smaller domes with minarets on the corners of the small domes (MSN Encarta online encyclopedia, 2008). The mosque which Sinan built was more than just a mosque—it was a complex of buildings housing baths, soup kitchens, schools and shops. The innovation that he introduced to the design of the Hagia Sophia eliminated the use of columns; thus, there are no obstructions to view, light and air (Roberson, 1998). Windows, domes and arches dominated the 16th and 17th century Ottoman architecture. The Sinan style architecture emphasizes unity and coordination. No matter how small a part is, it is not neglected hence the architect sees to it that its design compliments with the whole. During this period, Ottoman architecture played a greater role than just building structures. The proliferation of building mosques and other edifice defined Ottoman power. The imperial architects followed a centralized design and implemented this throughout the empire. They also followed a standardized architecture to â€Å"Ottomanize the formerly Mamluk territories†. However, the architectural designs that were prevalent in the provinces did not exactly copy the architectural designs of structures in the capital of the empire. The designs in the rural areas had to conform with the available materials and skilled labor. The structures which were patronized by the provinces were the fountains, avanserais and building complexes which transformed the functions of the cities. Most of the mosques also exhibited hemisphirical domes and pencil-shaped minarets (Zeitlian, 2004). According to Baer (1989, p. 687), the highly articulated exteriors of Ottoman architecture reversed the standard Islamic preference in mosques which is to stress the interior at the expense of the exterior. However, the greatness of Ottoman architecture’s Golden Age waned in the 18th century, when architects deviated from classical architectural principles and adopted European styles. Baroque, Ampir and Rococo styles as well as excessive Western decorations influenced the architecture of the period. Fountains also proliferated the structures that were then built (Sansal, 2008). Sinan’s influence to Ottoman architecture almost disappeared in the 19th century. During this period, Abdul Aziz and Sultan Abdulhamit II and other architects began to search for an international identity of Ottoman architecture. In their quest for this identity, the architects did not look back to the classic Ottoman architecture of Sinan but to earlier architectural styles—the 14th and 15th century style in Turkey, 12th to 14th century styles in Andalusia particularly Seville and Granada in Spain and the 17th and 18th century styles in Moghul India. The innovations that 19th century architects introduced were more evident in the interior rather than the exteriors, which remained to be influenced by the West. They maintained an outward acceptance of western traditions and culture but kept the core and the heart of their craft to Islamic traditions. The prevalence of this kind of art exemplifies not just a simple act of change, but an indication of the empire’s visions. The Ottoman rulers in the second half of the 19th century stressed their leadership of the Sunni Muslims worldwide, thus the need to adopt foreign architectural styles and infusing it with Islamic traditions. The style that prevailed during this period is known as the new Ottoman Caliphal Islamic style. This style employed carved and painted woods with Kufi calligraphy, onion domes, horseshoe arches, towers and finials, use of flat areas of low relief and an exterior style of tile work (Duggan, 2002). According to Kuban (2001), the 19th century Ottoman architecture was not only limited to the erection of mosques. This period also gave way for the building of churches; however, literature delving on this century of Ottoman architecture fail to touch this topic. Ottoman architecture remained to be Muslim from the capture of Constantinople until the 18th century. During this period, the renovation and building of Christian churches was prohibited. Thus, no development on church architecture emerged. However, this rule changed by the end of the 18th century when legal and social rights were given to non-Muslims. By the 19th century, churches were built, some of them even adopting the styles that were employed in mosques such as the archs which were evident on the church’s interior. However, before growth of Ottoman architecture in Constantinople, the city already housed great architectural works. Aside from the famous Hagia Sophia, a beautiful architectural piece by itself, the Basilica cistern was built. It is located about south-west of the famous Hagia Sophia and served as one of the historical structures of Istanbul. This cistern contained a great number of marble columns that arose out of the water, thus the name â€Å"sinking palace†. The cistern was built during the rule of Emperor Justinianus. It is believed that seven thousand slaves worked on the cistern. The water that placed on such cistern came from the Egrikap? Water Distribution Centre in Belgrade Forest. The plan for the cistern was created by a group of German divers. Within the cistern are 336 columns which reflect the corinth and dor types, are nine meters high and are arranged in 12 rows. The support for the ceiling are cross shaped vaults and round arches. Since its foundation, the cistern has undergone numerous reparations and restorations. The cistern which can hold up to 100,000 tons of water, provided the water utilized in the palace of the Byzantine empire. During the conquest of the Ottomans, the cistern supplied water to the Topkapi palace. However, after the Ottomans have established their own water facilities, they ceased using the cistern as they preferred to use running water rather than still water. The cistern remained to be a secret from the west until the discovery by Dutch traveler who was studying the remains of the Byzantine empire. The cistern was transformed into a museum after undergoing reparations and restorations from 1985 to 1987. The cistern again went through deep cleaning in 1994 (Yerebatan Sarnici, n. d. ). Despite the numerous years that passed, the influences of Ottoman architecture still remain to be a source of awe and inspiration in the erection of buildings. The functional designs of Sinan, the employment of numerous windows to allow more air and light to circulate and the elimination of the use of too much columns in a structure to give more emphasis to the center serve as great contribution to modern day architecture.

Freaks and Geeks Paragraph

Lights, Camera, Music, Action A filmmaker needs to work extremely hard to create a piece with a strong story line, characterization, twists and a stupendous ending. How are these elements portrayed? Through the elements of media of course. In the pilot episode of â€Å"Freaks and Geeks,† it is undeniable that the use of lighting, music and camera manipulation are utilized to create pathos between the characters and the audience. Music evidently plays a grand part of setting the tone and emotion in a scene whether it is to heighten suspense, set a romantic mood or pick up the pace for an action scene.Prior to the ambush of the school bully Alan in the episode of â€Å"Freaks and Geeks,† the music slowed into a dramatic melody with heroic lyrics and an altogether â€Å"we are going into battle,† feel. This use of music is highly effective in relaying the sense of finality to the viewers, the geeks are finally going to stand up to the bully. It gives everything a ba ttle-ready atmosphere which is perfect for the before-the-fight mood.Furthermore, the use of different camera angles and distances plays a large part in creating sympathy or empathy between the viewer and character as seen when Sam struggles to ask his crush, Cindy out for the Homecoming Dance. The close-up on his face is used to allow viewers to clearly see the hesitancy in his gaze, the nervous way he bites his lip and the internal struggle to find courage and pursue his dream. Without being able to truly see his emotions, viewers would likely be less empathetic towards his cause and not root for him as strongly had the camera been so far as to not being able to see his face.Lastly, another important aspect of media elements that was used frequently throughout the episode is lighting. During the scene where Lindsay’s in Nick’s garage, the lights are dim and soft and the romantic, deep atmosphere is created. It was during this scene where Nick tells Lindsay about his dreams and his passion for drumming, the lighting creates a sense of endearment from the viewers because the lighting, plus the music, plus the camera shots all combine together to create this peaceful, cute moment that makes the viewers really want something romantic to happen.Therefore, lighting, music and camera manipulation are all used extensively throughout the episode to heighten emotion and create pathos between the characters and the viewers. Works Cited Paul Feig, S. W. (Writer), & Jake Kasdan, I. R. (Director). (1999). Pilot [Television series episode]. In Judd Apatow(Producer), Freaks and Geeks. California, USA: National Broadcasting Company.

Project Management Explore the Role of the Project Management team to Essay

Project Management Explore the Role of the Project Management team to critically analyse the differing ways in which projects can be Organised - Essay Example Projects usually follow major phases or stages (with various titles for these), including feasibility, project planning, implementation, evaluation and support/maintenance. (Free Management Library, 1997-2009) Each project phase normally includes a set of defined work products designed to establish the desired level of management control. Each project phase is marked by completion of one or more deliverable. (William Duncan, 1996) The conclusion of a project phase is generally marked by a review of both key deliverables and project performance in order to (a) determine if the project should continue into its next phase and (b) detect and correct errors cost effectively. (William R. Duncan, 1996) "The project manager should be appointed at any stage of the project, s/he should be appointed prior to the appointment of the project team. The project manager documents a detailed Job Description for each project role and appoints a human resource to each role based on his/her relevant skills and experience. (Jason Westland, 2003)" The initial phase of project management involves feasibility study. This is to find out whether the project is viable or not. Feasibility study plays a very important role for the success of a project. Feasibility study generally involves identifying the future risks involved in the projects and steps to reduce the risks. "A feasibility study should be done based on political, commercial, and organisational elements." (Patrick Andrews, 2002). The feasibility study should be shared with the project management team and various input from the team members need to be analysed and incorporated to the feasibility report. It is important that it should be documented. If the study reveals that the project is not viable, it can be stopped at an early stage thus reducing wastage of resources, time, and cost. If the study is viable, the study should clearly outline the statements proving why the project is viable. The deliverable of a feasibility study is feasibility report. Project Planning Planning a project is extremely important before actually implementing the project. The project plan is necessary in defining the various milestones of the project and coming up with tentative dates to complete each milestone. This helps to keep a check on the project at the various miles

Yankee Fork and Hoe Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Yankee Fork and Hoe Company - Case Study Example Roberts deploys Sharon Place, the consultant to investigate the problem mainly focusing on its high-volume product ‘bow rake’. Place wants to know how Yankee plans bow rake production. According to the information given by Phil Stanton, the important faculty of marketing, Yankee does not have a formal method of production planning. The production forecasting depends on the information given by the marketing section. However, the forecasts are usually inflated and therefore, Stanton usually reduces the forecast by 10 percent. According to Stanton, the production will be cost effective only if the forecasts are good. However, it often flaws due to the inaccurate information given by the marketers. Ron Adams, the marketing manager has a different opinion regarding the causes of late delivery. He says that he prepares monthly forecasts relying on various factors like the changes in the economy, the previous year’s shortage, and the feedback collected from managers from various sales regions. He further complains that despite the whole efforts, they still fail to avoid customer

Breast cancer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Breast cancer - Assignment Example 1). It is the common cause of death from cancer for NSW women, 862 deaths in 2001 (ibid.). In Victoria, figures for 2007 showed an incidence of 3,188 new cases per 100,000 population with 708 deaths (www.cancervic.org.au, 2007, p. 12). One in eleven women will be diagnosed with breast cancer before the age of 75 (www.cancerscreening.gov.au). It is a leading cause of death among women in 45-55 age bracket (www.imaginis.com, 2010, p. 1). The lifetime chance of ever developing breast cancer is 4.8% in developed Western countries (due to higher hormone use) but only 1.8% in poorer countries. By age groups, those below 20 years old have the lowest prevalence (1 in 1,985). Those in older age groups have higher prevalence rates of 1 in 37 by age 50; 1 in 26 by age 60 and 1 in 24 by age 70. The greatest risk factors for breast cancer are gender (being a woman) and age (by simply growing older) with about 90% of cases due to the ageing process and not due to heredity (www.breastcancer.org, 2010, p. 1). Some 14,000 women will be diagnosed with the disease this year; this makes it the most common cancer among Australian women (BCNA, 2010, p. 1). There is hope, however, as latest statistics indicated a 5-year survival rate of 88%. The average age of a first diagnosis is 60 years old but 75% of new cases develop in women who are 50 years old or older; while women with higher incomes have a higher incidence rate compared to lower-income women (134 vs. 110 but 21.1 overall deaths per 100,000 population). Over 70% of cases diagnosed occur in women aged 50 or older but those women aged 50-69 can reduce chances of dying by 30% if they opt to have a breast screen once every two years (www.bcig.org.au, 2009, p. 1). About 95% of all breast cancer cases occurred in women aged 40 or older but there is an observed decrease in women aged 80 and above

See attachment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

See attachment - Essay Example According to Torun(2007, p.7) acknowledges that Zara direct rivals in Europe are H &M, although the latter does not manufacture their products but rather outsource such services to low cost nations in the Far East. Gap is also a big competitor in the apparels and fashion industry. In the year 2008, Inditex had edged past Gap in terms of sales to emerge as the world’s largest fashion retailer (Welters and Lillethun2007, p.541).   Zara’s organizational Structure and Culture The employees at Zara have come to recognize that they are operating in fast changing world of fashion where a product can move from being trendy to staple in just a week. The owner of the company, Amancio Ortega, he likened the fashion industry to that of food by describing the industry as one with perishable goods (Casillas, Acedo and Moreno 2007, p.129).   At the company, the employees work like bees in a hive- as a team to get the work done successfully and quickly. When they are trying out new products, the design is performed, clothes prototyped and criticized in a very short time, normally in a few hours (Dunne, 2013). Brand perception and global visibility While competitors fall, Zara is going through one of the quickestinternationalgrowth the fashion globe has ever seen, opening a store a day and entering new markets worldwide – 68 countries so far and the chain’s profitability is among the highest in the industry. In the year 2012, Zara was ranked at position 37 a forty two percent increase from position 64 they had attained in the year 2005, and according to the global ranking site, its star will continue to rise as they continue to enter newer markets (Interbrand, 2013). Zara as a fashion brand is easily distinguishable from other fashion brands due the speed at which ne collection are launched, the premium price of its commodities and the premium locations of its stores in major cities. Which means that the company is not only providing their custom ers with a basic need that is clothing, but also their customers demand for self-actualization- putting on what they feel portrays their image. Every human being feels self-actualized when associated with a high performing product that has a high brand value (Mathews, 2006). For example, the name Zara easily comes to mind when one mentions the prime locations in cities that the company is associated. Zara’s brand reception all over the globe has been phenomenal over the last couple of years to say the least, for instance in New Delhi, India, when they opened a shop in the high end district, they have been recording staggering sales over the year(Jacoband Mamgain, 2011)). Trading and Business Partnerships Zara is a vertically integrated firm, which means that it controls it most of its economic activities from manufacturing to retailing. It swathes all the facets of the fashion development: design, production, logistics and circulation on its own administered retail shops. Acc ording to the owner, the firm produces almost fifty percent of its product. When entering new foreign markets, Zara has been known to enter into a new foray either through subsidiary, joint venture or through franchising (Sorge

Opinion Esay (Government) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Opinion Esay (Government) - Essay Example Most of the Americans wish to live without any debt and have the ability to retire at 65 years, but this can only happen if they accumulate large amounts of wealth. The American constitution offers equal opportunity to all citizens in achieving the American dream. However, achieving the American dream is becoming more challenging in the society today. The rising difference in the wealth gap between races is an example of how hard it has become to achieve the American dream. The difference is evident even in the racial line with the whites having better living standards and opportunities than the black Americans. The racial wealth gap in America is becoming deeper showing the inequality in the American society (Johnson, 2). Some individuals may feel to be in better position than their parents, but the whole society is experiencing increasing gaps in opportunities available. The gap shows that the future generation may not be able to have equal opportunity in achieving their

Young British Artists and the world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Young British Artists and the world - Essay Example Most art forms seem to go through phases and cycles of inspiration. Sometimes, it seems that the well of inspiration is particularly dry; during other times, like the wave of rising popularity for young British artists, particularly during the early and mid 1990's Not only has contemporary British art become more popular here at home, but also abroad. This has implications not only for the artists themselves, but also for the scope of mainstream contemporary art as a whole. Additionally, the whole of British culture is affected by this latest wave of young inspiration, as well as the world's view of Great Britain and British culture.In the late 1980's, British art entered a new exciting chapter-a new wave of inspiration was borne of apathy and confusion, and the hearts and minds of a new generation and breed of artists-those who would soon become known as the YBA's, or Young British Artists.The generation known as Young British Artists (YBAs) were born between the mid-1960s and 1970s , and emerged from the art schools in the late 1980s. In these educational establishments major changes were taking place. They registered a reaction to the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who claimed that there was 'no such thing as society'. It was in this context that both teachers and students came together to consider contemporary life and culture head-on, (Nelson 2000) The beginning of this movement is most often attributed to a 1988 exhibit in London, entitled Freeze, and organized by Damien Hirst, while he was still an art student at Goldsmiths College. He would go on to become the most widely celebrated of the YBA's, but was accompanied by such artists as Tracey Emin, Cornelia Parker, Christine Borland, and Sarah Lucas, to name a few, (Tate Online Glossary) The notion of the young celebrity artist seems to be a fairly new one, with an uncanny cult-like following. The work of artists such as Tracey Emin, Damian Hirst, the Chapman brothers, and Grayson Perry had all but taken on a life of it's own in the 1990's. It can be argued that the art was essentially representative of the culture at the time, emerging simultaneously with the 'grunge' movement in music and lifestyle. Certainly it is no coincidence that the YBA movement seemed to begin at the same time that the grunge rock band Nirvana appeared on the global scene, emerging from Seattle in the United States, and making a trend of stoner nonchalance, torn jeans and flannel shirts, the epitome of 'cool'. It is not that the global grunge movement was a direct result of the artistic YBA movement in London, nor vice versa. Rather, the world seem filled at the time with a feeling of apathy for life; there were no major wars to be fought, and nothing to be won, just an ubiquitous haze of melancholy that seemed to infiltrate everything in its path. These angry youth burst onto the cultural landscape all over, forming a sort of cultural revolution, and then "screaming how fucked-up it and everything around it was," (Bracewell 2002). To be certain, "the label YBA turned out to be a powerful brand and marketing tool, but of course it concealed huge diversity. Nevertheless certain broad trends both formal an d thematic can be discerned. Formally, the era is marked by a complete openness towards the materials and processes with which art can be made and the form that it can take," (Tate Online Glossary). In theory and in practice, the YBA was essentially raging aganst life in general. The YBA movement, like the grunge rock movement in the United States, began as a socialist, anti-corporate, anti-establishment movement, rallying against invisible oppression, and finding common ground in the assertion and expression of the artist's idea of self. For them, depression, alcoholism, and poverty were a reality to be shared with the world at large. Tracey Emin, who is described as "one of the most prominent members of

The Life of Maya Angelou Essay Example for Free

The Life of Maya Angelou Essay Maya Angelou is a black female who had a tragic childhood, but fought through it and ended up extremely influential, prestigious, and successful. She spent her childhood being tossed back and forth between California and Alabama with her older brother. During her middle years she had to learn how to grow up fast and make a living on her own. American poet/writer Maya Angelou pulled through a difficult life to write beautiful poetry and stories to inspire and encourage her readers. On April 4, 1928, Maya Angelou was born in St. Louis, Missouri. She is the â€Å"daughter of Bailey and Vivian [Baxter] Johnson† (Maya). She had only one older brother, Bailey, named after his father. Her mother, â€Å"Vivian Baxter Johnson, worked variously as a card dealer, boarding house proprietor, and registered nurse† (Angelou). Her mother had three husbands but many lovers. Angelou’s father was Bailey Johnson, â€Å"a doorman and a naval dietician† (Angelou). After she was born, she and her family moved to Long Beach, California. It was there that her parents’ marriage ended in a divorce. â€Å"When she was three, her father put Maya and her four year old brother on a train from California to Stamps, Arkansas† (American 2). They went to live with Annie Henderson, their grandmother. â€Å"On the train they had tags around their wrists with notes ‘To Whom it May Concern’ explaining their names and their destination† ( American 3). Maya’s child hood was rough without her parents and she began to resent them. Her mother tried to have a relationship with her but she was not always very successful. One Christmas, â€Å"Maya destroy[ed] a blond-haired doll her mother had sent her but preserves the other gift†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (American 3). Not having a mother around was only one of the hardships she faced. Her grandmother owned a general store, but she was a black woman in a racist area. Angelou witnessed â€Å"economic hardship, murderous hate, and ingrained denigration† (Maya). Maya Angelou’s early years were not very happy, but they set the stage for the rest of her life. During Maya Angelou’s middle years she went back and forth from her mother and grandmother a lot. Tragically, â€Å"at the age of eight, Angelou was raped† (Maya). She had gone to visit her mother a little while after the divorce. â€Å"Maya was raped by her mother’s boyfriend. After the crime was discovered, Maya was forced to testify† (Angelou). Only days after the trial, the man who committed the crime â€Å"was found beaten to death in an alley†(Angelou). Maya began to believe that it was her fault that the man was killed so she stopped talking. The experience influenced many of her stories and poems later in her life. Angelou attended various â€Å"public schools in Arkansas and California† (Maya). Once Angelou began to speak again, she became actively associated in her education. â€Å"Maya was able to graduate with top honors from Lafayette County Training School in Stamps† (American 4). She then moved back to San Francisco with her mother. â€Å"She graduated from George Washington High School† (American 4). The high school was mostly white, but she made it through. â€Å"While still in high school she received a scholarship to study dance and theater at the California Labor School† (American 4). However, Angelou did not attend the school because she pregnant. She was very insecure about her body, â€Å"she thought that her large bones, small breasts, and deep voice indicate that she is a lesbian† (American 4). She then tried to make herself feel better by sleeping with a boy in the neighborhood. â€Å"Maya is a single young mother, yet still herself a child, a mother afraid she might harm her baby† (American 4). Angelou’s mother constantly sent her back and forth between California and Arkansas as they both tried to figure out what was best for the child. Angelou’s middle years were difficult, but would also influence her later writing. Maya Angelou’s adult life came very early for her as she experienced the trials of a young, unemployed, single, teenage mother. She and her child were â€Å"living in San Francisco with her mother and her [mothers] new husband† (American 4). Angelou was only 17, her son was still an infant, so she needed to find a job. She tried being â€Å"a busgirl and a cook at a Creole restaurant† (American 5). While working there, she thought she found the man of her dreams. But the dream quickly came to an end when the man’s  girlfriend returned from a long term trip. Angelou quickly moved on the next job hoping to make some money. â€Å"She became a nightclub waitress and met two lesbians, Johnnie Mae and Beatrice† (American 5). She quickly discovered that they were alcoholic prostitutes. â€Å"Maya convinces them to turn their house into a whorehouse† (American 5). Her brother, Bailey, advises her to quit, insisting that he will always be there for her. Angelou stays in California to raise her child but travels often. As a curious young mother trying to get by, waiting for the next chapter in life. In the early 1950’s, Angelou got married for the first time to a man named Tosh Angelos. She met him â€Å"when she was working as a salesgirl in a record store† (American 6). Tosh was a sailor who loved jazz, â€Å"but she was also bothered by what she senses to be the disapproval from others because of the interracial marriage† (American 6). Therefore, the marriage only lasted about three years. Soon after, Angelou became a dancer and a singer. â€Å"She performed in the popular west Indian calypso style at The Purple Onion† (Angelou). Angelou stopped traveling as much in 1960, when she realized that she could be a part of something huge. One Sunday morning, Angelou attended service at a Harlem church. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was preaching, it then inspired her. â€Å"She decided to produce a play and raise money for King’s Southern Leadership Conference† (Angelou). In 1961, Angelou moved to Cairo, Egypt and remarried. â€Å"In 1963, after her marriage ended, she moved to Accra to be with her son† (Angelou). In 1966 she went back to California to continue acting, singing, and writing. She published her autobiography â€Å"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings in 1970† (Angelou). Another highlight of her adult life was when she gave the presidential inauguration in 1993. Nevertheless, the trials and tribulations that she faced became an influence to many. â€Å"Angelou is most familiar to her international audience for her series of auto biographies† (American 1). She had five major autobiographies that reflected upon her childhood, middle years, and adult life. â€Å"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Gather Together in My Name, Singin’ and Swingin’ and Getting’ Merry Like Christmas, The Heart of a Women, and All God’s Children  Need Traveling Shoes† (American 2). I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was published in 1970, it quickly became popular and got a nomination for the National Book Award. â€Å"It covers her childhood and adolescence until the birth of her son, when she was 17† (Angelou).

Understanding Inflation Essay Example for Free

Understanding Inflation Essay The amount a product costs should be the first decision a consumer has to make before they purchase a good or service. Consumers may find themselves asking what exactly makes a price rise and why their money can purchase less and less. The answer to this question is inflation. What is inflation and why should any consumer care about inflation? A general overview of the inflation phenomenon, the main measures of inflation, and how inflation plays a role in the economy will all help a person better understand why their money seems to be worth less each year. Overview of Inflation In order to truly understand inflation, the first step is listing the main cause of inflation pressures on the economy. Inflation begins initially and continues to occur due to sustained excess of spending in the economy. (Wilson 27) This amounts to spending over and above what is considered average spending for the economy in past months. The type of spending that would cause inflation is when people, groups, businesses, government, and foreigners all together demand or try to spend more than the economy can produce at full employment, prices in general will be bid up. (Ibid) Basically what this amounts to is people all wanting to buy products and services, but there are not enough products or services to fulfill all the buyers. The prices will go up because manufacturers can sell the product at a much higher rate because there are so many buyers. The solution to the problem is really two separate incidences that must happen in order for prices to begin falling. One of these solutions is excess demand for goods and services is reduced† and the other solution is for â€Å"capacity of the economy to produce is expanded, the price level will continue to rise. (Ibid) Thinking about these two situations makes sense. If the demand for goods or services decreases then less people will want to buy and there will be more of the product for the remaining consumers. Also, if a manufactured item is rising because it is not manufactured in many factories and suddenly factories spring up all over to manufacture the product then the price will fall. The demand and supply capacity are the cornerstones of inflation, but what also plays into inflation’s fluctuations is the money supply. The Federal Reserve Bank sets interest rates for borrowing of money. The lower the interest rate the greater amount of money that is borrowed, and the higher the interest rate the lesser amount of money that is borrowed. (Wilson 103) For example, if borrowing $1000 would cost 10% a year, a borrower would be paying $100 a year for the use of that initial $1000. If, however, the Federal Reserve Bank lowers the interest rate to 5%, the amount the borrower would be paying per year would be cut in half. In the latter example, a borrower would be willing to take out a larger amount of money because it would cost them less. So, with a larger amount of cheaper money in the market, prices will begin to rise because the cost of that money would cause more people to borrow as compared to a higher rate of interest. Money would essentially be worth less because the Federal Reserve allows it to be worth less by dropping the interest rate. The rise in prices would continue until the Federal Reserve once again decides to raise the interest rate. (Ibid) The Federal Reserve utilizes these money techniques in order to help spur growth in the economy, but the downside to economic growth is always inflation. Measures of Inflation An important concept of inflation is to pay close attention to inflation indicators. These â€Å"indicators† are indexes that signal a potential arrival of inflation for the country. Many measures of inflation exist, but the main types are the Consumer Price Index (CPI), Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), and the Bryan-Cecchetti model. The CPI is perhaps the most important indicator because it is the model that all other inflation models emulate in some way. The first step in understanding the CPI is to decipher the calculation of the index. The CPI is constructed from basic component indexes. Component indexes are those goods and services that a consumer purchases and those â€Å"components† are split into 207 items. (Moulton 13) Also, there are 44 more items included for the urban areas of the United States, and these two sets of items are multiplied together to a total of 9,108 components for the CPI. (Ibid) For example, dairy products are considered just set of the components within the 9,108 components used to calculate the CPI. A problem arises with the CPI in that many products come and go in the market and it is up to the CPI to document these types of changes. This problem is overcome by the economists allowing for products to enter and leave the market as well as estimating the indexes on the basis of samples used from all the items that consumers buy for a given period. (Ibid) This type of calculating gives economists as comprehensive a picture as one can get. The resulting figure is compared to previous time periods and an increase percentage or decrease percentage is discovered from the calculations. This increase or decrease percentage is the amount that general prices have risen or fallen in between those time periods. If the prices rise then the CPI will show the American public that inflation has occurred. It is important that the CPI stay current with the ever-changing American economy. This is why the CPI is updated once every 10 years, and the last update occurred in 1998. (Greenlees, and Mason 3) This aspect of the CPI is important because of its relation to inflation. The CPI is used in many government programs including entitlements for school lunches and food stamps as well as the amount figured for tax deductions. (Ibid) If the CPI is not allowed to evolve with the evolving economy, many people would not be allowed government benefits or tax deductions that they otherwise would deserve. Thus, the CPI is examined and revised so inflation pressures do not have as much an impact on government programs. Another measure of inflation that is essentially a CPI number but factored with a different set of variables is the BLS model. The BLS model highlights the fact that some parts of the CPI are considered volatile due to outside pressures such as weather and international conflicts. Cogley suggests, the Bureau of Labor Statistics computes a ‘core inflation’ measure that consists of a weighted average of all CPI components except for food and energy, which are removed because their prices tend to be more volatile. (94) Energy can be affected by international conflicts and food supplies can be affected by the weather. Thus, the BLS model will demonstrate a less drastic change in inflation numbers if these events do occur. A final measure of inflation that utilizes the CPI is the Bryan-Cecchetti model. This model takes the BLS model one step further. The Bryan-Cecchetti system still uses the CPI as a basis, because the economists that developed this model understand that the CPI is the greatest general measure to be utilized. However, the Bryan-Cecchetti model extends the BLS approach by automatically excluding large price changes from the CPI basket regardless of the sector in which they arise. (Ibid) Bryan-Cecchetti correctly identifies that other sectors besides energy and food are affected by outside influences and can have a drastic rise or fall. However, the CPI is still considered the main standard for deciding the amount of inflation in the economy. The Role Inflation Plays in the Economy Inflation would essentially mean nothing to the average consumer if it had no bearing on the economy. It is in the economy that inflation can either hinder a person’s ability to purchase or cause a lack of growth for businesses. The role inflation plays in the economy is substantial. One of the main consequences of unwanted inflation is to the American worker. The first negative impact is a consumer’s shopping patterns and amount of money spent on goods and services. Inflation â€Å"causes consumers to shift the timing of their shopping closer to the receipt of income and creates incentives for shop owners to decrease their inventories. (Frenkel, and Mehrez 616) Less of a product in the store and less purchasing power of consumers combines to create even more inflation in the economy to occur. It is a cycle that ultimately raises prices to a harmful degree. So, a consumer is left with little alternatives to combat the harm that inflation causes. A person with less money will possibly lose their job (because of the lack of buying by other consumers), will consume less (because of the higher prices and lower supplies), invest less (because of the lack of money to invest), and finally rely more on credit (because the purchasing power of credit does not have to be paid until later). (Ibid) Another problem with inflation in the economy is it decreases the value of the dollar. As discussed previously, more dollars in the stream of commerce or rising prices due to limited supplies will help lower the value of the dollar. In this country, for example, â€Å"the dollar lost about three-fourths of its value between 1965 to 1985; between 1985 and 2005, it lost a bit over one-third of its value. (Hoar 42) This dramatic decrease in dollar value is due to inflation. This occurrence is precisely why older Americans will reminisce about how a movie and a Coke cost them less than a dollar. The dollar is still the same, but the amount it can purchase has decreased and will more than likely continue to decrease in the future. Conclusion If a person is purchasing goods or services in America then inflation and the CPI are important concepts to understand. Understanding these two concepts will help a person better plan their future and allow them to stay calm when their money cannot buy them as much as before. Works Cited Cogley, Timothy. A Simple Adaptive Measure of Core Inflation. Journal of Money, Credit Banking 34. 1 (2002): 94+.Frenkel, Michael, and Gil Mehrez. Inflation and the Misallocation of Resources. Economic Inquiry 38. 4 (2000): 616-628. Greenlees, John S. , and Charles C. Mason. Overview of the 1998 Revision of the Consumer Price Index. Monthly Labor Review 119. 12 (1996): 3+. Hoar, William P. Myths about Inflation. The New American 12 Dec. 2005: 42+. Moulton, Brent R. Basic Components of the CPI: Estimation of Price Changes. Monthly Labor Review 116. 12 (1993): 13+. Wilson, George W. Inflation Causes, Consequences, and Cures. 1st ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1982.

Effect of Stem Cell Treatment on Blood Cancer Patients

Effect of Stem Cell Treatment on Blood Cancer Patients Stephen T. Smith II Abstract Stem cell transplantation, which most of the time is alluded to as peripheral blood, bone marrow, and umbilical cord transplant, is a system that replaces undesirable blood-shaping cells with solid normal cells. Stem cell transplantation permits specialists to give high substantial measurements of chemotherapy or radiation treatment to build the possibility of disposing of blood cancer growth in the marrow and after that reestablishing ordinary cell generation.   As researchers continue to improve with stem cell transplantation, the possibility for more patients to receive this treatment for Leukemia lymphoma, myeloma and Hodgkins disease could increases. In spite of the fact that stem cell transplants can help many patients, notwithstanding giving a few people a possibility for a cure, the choice to have a transplant isnt simple. Noteworthy worthy foundational concerns about stem cell treatment are that by introducing stem cells into an infected body may cause more harm, uncontrolled development, worsen the disease or damage injuries as opposed to treating them.   The transplants have been utilized to cure a large number of individuals with generally savage diseases. Still, the conceivable dangers and confusions can debilitate life, as well. The normal dangers and advantages must be weighed painstakingly before considering a transplant.   The possible risks and complications can be life threatening. Introduction Blood or bone marrow cancer in known as leukemia. There are diverse sorts of leukemia, however, they all begin when something turns out badly with blood-developing cells in bone marrow, the springy tissue inside bones. In leukemia, a portion of the cells are made when these blood-developing cells partition are irregular and they continue isolating wildly, swarming out typical blood and invulnerable cells we have to survive.   Leukemia is normally found in youngsters; more often than it is in grown-ups. Without treatment, leukemia can be deadly. The uplifting news is that doctors have found ways to treat leukemia through stem cells transplants. There are three fundamental types of blood cells, white, red, and platelets, which are created by stem cells. Our bodies require a combination of all three blood cells to keep us alive, for the cells to carry out their employments, every living individual needs a proper balance of each cell in their blood. There are three different types of stem cell transplants, the most well-known type of stem cell transplant is peripheral blood, which is the blood that streams through every living individuals arteries and veins. Bone marrow typically discharges a small amount of peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs) into the circulation system. To get enough peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs) for a transplant, the contributor takes a white cell development, for example, granulocyte-state fortifying variable (G-CSF) medication, which builds the number of stem cells by coaxing them out of the marrow and into the blood system. At the point when a patients own particular foundational stems cells are utilized, both granulocyte-state fortifying (G-CSF) and the chemotherapy, which are used to treat cancer usually increase peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs). In patients who have myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, the medication plerixafor (Mozobil) can be utilized to assemble their own foundational stem cells. Studies and Treatment Findings Studies have shown that patients with leukemia who have gone through a stem cell transplants using the umbilical cord blood infants are typically helpless against life-threating diseases for no less than a month as their immune system recovers. Umbilical cord blood transplants have been performed in many patients with leukemia and other blood tumors to help the body make fresh recruit cells after its own particular cells, in the body, which have been wrecked by cancer treatment and disease.   The reason why stem cell cord blood transplant are having so much success is because they do not have to be a perfect matched with a patient, unlike bone marrow transplants.   Even though the stem cell cord blood is very versatile and doesnt always need a perfect match only one of three patient and 95% of non-whites who could possibly benefit from a transplant never locate an appropriate match.   Scientists are searching for an approach to expand and speed up the production of white blood cells from the stem cell cord blood with an end goal to fight infections. In any case, stem cell cord blood of newborns contains just around one-tenth of the undeveloped cells found in bone marrow, and this is the reason cord blood transplants, takes such a great amount of time longer to engraft. The reason why stem cell cord blood transplant are having so much success is because they do not have to be a perfect matched with a patient, unlike bone marrow transplants.   Even though the stem cell cord blood is very versatile and doesnt always need a perfect match only one of three patient and 95% of non-whites who could possibly benefit from a transplant never locate an appropriate match. A European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation conducted a study of 513 patients with chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia (CMML), and treated them with allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) the two are usually reported together.   The results were complete remission of the disease in 122 patients, 344 did not have any remission, and 47 the results were unknown. The study results determined that allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) should continue to be a curative treatment option for patients with chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia CMML and should be performed preferably early after diagnosis or after establishing the best possible remission status. An individual case study about a 52-yearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœold woman with erythematous skin nodules on her trunk, arms, face, also with bilateral pleural effusion and hepatosplenomegaly who was treated at a Turkish hospital was reported in October 2012. Doctors found Tà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœcell acute lymphoblastic leukemia were consistent with precursors in her skin and bone marrow from the biopsy. The woman was started on induction chemotherapy, and remission was achieved. However, in December of 2013 the womans bone marrow examination was clean, but skin lesions started to reappeared.   In January of 2014 the disease reappeared, so doctors started radiation treatment.   The radiation treatment caused the skin lesions progress, but relapse was evident in the bone marrow. In March of 2014 a chemotherapy regimen was started in response to the continued progression of the nodular skin lesions. The chemo treatment was unsuccessful, so May of 2014 the patient was treated with a highà ¢Ã¢ ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœdose of cytosine arabinoside.   The doctors finally decided to try allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, but a donor match could not be identified.  Ã‚   The woman was sent to Istanbul were she underwent un-manipulated peripheral blood stem cell transplant.   The transplant was preform without any extreme difficulties.   The womans body reacted positively to the stem cell treatment the leukemia stay in remission and the nodular skin lesions start to relapse. Conclusion Stem cell research has proven to have success for treatment in leukemia patients, but researcher still have their challenges with stem cells and controlling them, so that they will form the desired type of tissue without causing cancer.  Ã‚   Cancer patients should beware of con artist and pseudoscientific claims, there is a physician in China who runs a clinic where he injects stem cells derived from olfactory sheath cells taken from aborted fetuses into the spines of those suffering from spinal cord injury or motor nerve cell disease.   He claims that this treatment has amazing results curing his patients for their injuries.   His clinic has persuaded many desperate people from around the world, to pay a fee of $20,000 plus all related expenses.   His clinic has all the red flags of not applying basics of the scientific method.   This physician failed to conduct even the most basic observational controls in assessing his treatments. There is no hypothesis to explain his o bservations, no objective tests of function, no imaging or other anatomical or physiological testing to see what has happened to the patients during the experiment and no analyzed data of patients. Most patients accomplish a reduction (a nonappearance of signs and side effects) after starting treatment for intense myeloid leukemia (AML). Notwithstanding, a few patients have lingering leukemic cells in their marrow even after concentrated treatment. This is alluded to as unmanageable leukemia.   The treatment alternatives may incorporate medications not officially utilized amid the primary course of treatment. Foundational stem cell transplantation might be utilized when a reduction is accomplished, which may bring about a more durable remission. A few patients achieve reduction and afterward have an arrival of leukemia cells in the marrow and a lessening in typical platelets. This is called backslid leukemia. In patients who backslide, the length of the abatement, the patients age and the cytogenetic discoveries in the leukemia cells impact the way to deal with treatment. Drugs like those controlled at first, extraordinary medications or undifferentiated organism transplantation might be utilized to treat the leukemia.

Survival of the Fittest: Exploitation of Cambodia Under the Khmer Rouge

Slavery has existed throughout history and it even exists today in various forms. Slavery is the imprisonment of an individual by another. Herbert Spencer proposed the idea of survival of the fittest in human society. With slavery, especially in today’s time, there are people who are socially stronger taking advantage of those who are weaker and more vulnerable. The societies of today view money as a form of power, and with this power it is used to entrap the weak and using them as disposable objects. One of the forms of slavery that exist today but goes unnoticed is human trafficking. Somaly Mam’s autobiography, The Road of Lost Innocence, gave her readers an inside look into her world as a sex slave in Cambodia. Throughout her book, she describes the cruel and awful things slaves experience throughout their slavery. Sex slaves and violence are persistent in societies around the world, especially in the Cambodian society, because of the lack of respect and morals a nd the disconnection between the people with in that society. Cambodia is one of the poorest countries in Southern Asia. Cambodia’s poverty is causing a lot issues within the country; two of these issues are crime and enslavement. The citizens of that society are working hard and are receiving little to no pay. The damage that the Khmer Rouge has done to Cambodia has left the people emotionally and physically scarred. In Mam’s book she talks a lot about the effects that the Khmer Rouge had on the people and her country. Her words painted a picture for her readers showing the way people acted towards one another due to the Khmer Rouge. For example, she states, â€Å"It was important not to see, not to hear, not to know anything about what was happening† (Mam 14). Mam... ...the Khmer Rouge.† Time World, 17 February 2009 Date Accessed: 25 January 2012 Mam, Somaly. The Road of Lost Innocence: The True Story of a Cambodian Heroine. Ruth Marshall, Trans. New York: Spiegel& Grau, 2008. Pearl, Mariane. â€Å"Global Diary: Cambodia.† Glamour Magazine, 1 August 2006. Date Accessed: 25 January 2012 cambodia#ixzz1kXXN4LqD> Spencer, Channing. â€Å"Modern-Day Slavery in America: Sex Trafficking and Labor Exploitation.† Perspective Magazine, Harvard’s Liberal Monthly, 30 March 2010. Weinstein, David, "Herbert Spencer", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Date Accessed: 25 January 2012 .

Benefits of the world Trade Organization Essay -- essays research pape

Benefits of the World Trade Organization   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the biggest firms associated with globalization is the World Trade Organization. The World Trade Organization is the only international body that deals with the rules of trading between nations. It has evolved over the past half century into an entity that contract with the trade of services, intellectual property as well as its original intent of the trade of goods. The WTO controls most trade in the world today through over 100 countries, and even more on the way. The World Trade Organization is beneficial economically and we should support its principles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The original and main goal of the WTO is to remove trade barriers between countries, which is a major idea behind globalization. Anyone who knows the slightest bit of economics knows that trade is beneficial to a country as a whole. When free trade is allowed it opens up foreign markets for domestic producers. It also opens up the possibility of foreign competition in domestic markets. This fact will lead to the reduction in price of many products, which will benefit the consumer. Trade restrictions hurt the consumer, and this is a problem that the WTO is charged with addressing.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the 1980’s when Japanese cars were quickly gaining a foothold in the American market the US limited the number of imports from Japan, in theory to protect the American worker. In response to this, car prices rose extremely. If the imports were to be allowed into the United States it would no doubt have a short-term negative effect on the economy. This would all change however when a shift in the economy occurred or the American producers were forced to make better products which in the end will benefit the costumer. The long-term benefits, although hard to see by many politicians, would benefit our country in the long run.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The WTO also makes life much simpler for companies wishing to import raw materials from outside of the United States in order to make finished goods through Non-discrimination. If the WTO did not exist then the United States in all likelihood would have different import duties applying to different nations. Therefore if a company from the US wanted to import a raw material it would not be a simple case of... ... the numerous obstacles that only the larger firms were equipped to maneuver around in China. Thus all businesses working from within the United States will have the fair opportunity to extend their reach into China. China will also receive the same benefits once it enters the WTO and will be able to sell its products much easier to member countries. This fact will help the Chinese worker because member countries will tend not to buy Chinese goods if they know they were made in sweat shops or other places hurtful to the workers. The WTO will recognize this fact too and force China to provide better working conditions for its workers. The World Trade Organization’s principles should be supported and embraced. The WTO is a large step in the right direction to globalization. The long term benefits of free trade far outweigh only argument critics can come up with, which are short-term economic losses. The WTO is structured in a way that every member country is treated fairly and if not they can safely argue and settle disputes. The potential for new markets for all business world-wide are also great, and this in itself should be enough for any person to agree with its necessity.

College: Worth It or Not Essay

â€Å"College is a Waste of Time and Money† by Caroline Bird suggests that a college education is forced upon those who attend. As a student you shouldn’t lack the enthusiasm or motivation or it won’t be what you thought it would be. Bird states that those who think that going to college is a way to prepare for your future job are wrong, for there are students who are successful because of their family background. Bird makes valid points in her essay, but it isn’t all true to say that college wastes a student’s money and time and showing that going to college can benefit you in the end by giving you a well-paid job and having knowledge of new skills. Throughout high-school, students are taught that college is a great route to take. Bird states, â€Å"This is the way it used to be with women, and just as a society had systematically damaged women by insisting that their proper place was in the home, so we may be systematically damaging 18 yr-olds by insisting that their proper place is in college† (p.9). They even have classes now that prepare you for that next big step, like taking AVID classes. AVID is a college readiness system for elementary through high school. AP classes are also available to students in high school. AP stands for advanced placement classes, which have a curriculum that you get when in college. Many may say that it is not worth taking classes like that, but also some may say that it is beneficial even if you don’t go to college or not. It has become â€Å"The thing to do’ says Bird. Going to college has now become something like a popularity contest, where you attend because everyone else is and your parents think it is right. Parents go along with it, not â€Å"thinking of the â€Å"higher† good at all. They send their children to college because they are convinced young people benefit financially from those four years of higher education† (p. 24). Parents are only thinking of the money that will come from spending money on that education. My parents in are complete opposites of all that. They encouraged me to go college so I can better myself as a person. I will be the first, also, to go to college to get my degree in a profession. Students also feel like ‘they are not needed† so they attend college where they can feel like they may become something. Bird argues and tells us that we should force our students to go into college, and according to a study by Leon, 200 of 300 students felt that college education is a waste of money, so forcing them to go may not even work. (p. 18) Bird isn’t in an agreement that college education will help the students to make money in the future: â€Å"if making money is the only goal, college is the dumbest investment you can make† (p. 24). Bird furthers this testimonial by comparing the money that would be spent on education versus money that is put in a bank for interest. Even when the graduates do succeed in having good jobs, there is no evidence that money comes from the college education as college can attract students who have a wealthy family background (p. 31). There are those who just go college to go, but than can take over a family business or something. Then their wealth comes from that. College can open doors to jobs in the areas of teaching, medicine and research though such opportunities are scarce. Bird says that studies show that very often, the work attached to the jobs is totally unrelated to their college education and this is true for architects, nurses, teachers and other professionals (p. 48). So those who go into a profession that is meant to help others, you don’t take what you learned from college into that profession, you learn throughout your working years. This means that college education does not prepare the student for the job market. Bird is convinced that â€Å"college doesn’t make people intelligent, ambitious, happy or liberal. It’s the other way around. Intelligent, ambitious, happy, liberal people are attracted to higher education in the first place† (p. 52). Bird concludes that college education is for students who can afford money and time to read and learn and there must be alternatives provided for youngsters to have a good future. â€Å"College is a Waste of Time and Money† does give valid points in what Bird was trying to argue. College has become more expensive for a few days of school work that may not even help you in the future and students do have the wrong perception on what college is. But a college education does have its upsides. A college education is a journey that everyone, who has the right attitude about education, should take. College prepares a student for being independent by teaching them learning skills that can be used lifelong. The values you learn, leadership and social skills that you can gain, and the character and attitude of a student is enhanced by going to college.

Development and behavior in the environment Essay

Life is a changing process, from the moment of conception to the moment of death, and there are many complex processes of development that a human being experienced. People have the inherent ability to enlarge, to change and to develop in the entire way of living. People show an underlying continuity from one time of life to another. In other way, they change in one area with aspects of both continuousness and change is considered personality development. Human development is the scientific study of the quantitative and qualitative ways by which people change overtime. A procedure of becoming something distinct while insom respects are alike. Perhaps what is uniquely human is what we remain in an unending state of development. Life is always an incomplete business, and death is only a cessation. Human Behavior to the Environment According to Papalia (1992) people are not passive sponges, soaking up influences. They actively shape their own environment and they respond to the biotic and abiotic factors in their environment. In the development of all new behavior patterns, even where learning is an important factor, no amount of stimulation or practice will produce the behavior pattern until certain maturation has been reached. Therefore, it is not the behavior itself that matures, for behavior implies an interaction between the individuals and component in his environment. To study broader aspects of human behavior, it is important to consider the fact that heredity does not operate in void but that it is steadily limited and modified by environment. Theories and Concepts Jean Piaget: Cognitive Stage Theory The Swiss theoretician Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was the most prominent advocate of the organism perspective. Much of what we know about the way children is due to his creative inquiry. He built complex theories about cognitive development; changes in children thought processes that results in a growing ability to acquire and use knowledge about their world. Piaget believed that from infancy to adolescence, children advance through a predictable series of cognitive stages. Freud’ s Stages of Psychosocial Development Freud believed that personality is precise formed in the first few years of life, as children deal with conflicts between their biological, sexually related urges and the requirement of society. Freud saw that human personality is made up of three elements, which he called the id, the ego, and the superego. In these elements we will be convinced that humans are urge to do things in their own perspective depending on what kind of element they had adapted from the environment dominate them, this also answers the questions why each person is totally unique from the other. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Behaviorism In 1906, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov has discovered a basic form of learning called classical conditioning, also referred to as Pavlov’s conditioning theory, in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with one another. Latest research integrate this theory that this basic process can account for how people form certain preferences and fears. Environment All the conditions in the world that influence behavior, growth, development is what we define as environment, it includes the internal (cells, tissues, organs and system of the body), and social ( the people around us both within our family ties, jobs, school and those that seems to give a big influence in our daily living). The interaction of heredity environment determine human traits and characteristics. Heredity determines how high level of development a given environment can bring about in a given period of time. Environment determines how effective a certain heredity can be in influencing development over a given period of time. The function of the environment is that it supplies the stimuli that set off patterns of response already prepared by maturation. It also provide situation which are conductive to the person’s learning new patterns of altering old ones. Applied knowledge We will be considering two infant who have different parents lets name them Angie and Charlene, both of their parents work outside the home at full time jobs. Angie’s parents are able to arrange their schedules so that one parent is at home when Angie and her sisters return to school, should the parents be delayed the children go to the neighbor which is a grandmotherly figure. Her parents do their best to give them quality time. Homework is taken seriously by Angie and her parents the reason why Angie at an early age realizes the value of good education. While on the other side Charlene’s parents like his father does not usually stays at home when he is not working, he can be found with friends at a local bar the same way with her mother who have no longer time in cooking their food and depend on fast food as a regular basis. She has difficulty concentrating in school, and spends a good deal of time with friends at a local bar, all of whom enjoy riding the bus downtown to go to the movies. Angie’s parents are giving her maximum support while Charlene is not experiencing the same amiable but firm urge that encourages Angie to move on and develop into capable young adult. In this scenario, I could conclude that attention and time is very important in up bringing a child both psychologically and emotionally. Addiction Everything that the mother takes in makes its way to the new life in her uterus. Drugs may cross the placenta, just as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water do. The use of drug addicting substances such as marijuana, nicotine, cocaine, caffeine and opiates. The use of marijuana by pregnant women could affect her infant’s nervous system and can lead to birth defects. Drugs and chemical agents cross the placenta affect the embryonic and fetal system. Dynamics of abuse and neglect Adults hurt and neglect children because of various causes including the characteristic of the abuser or neglecter, the victim the family, the community, and the larger culture. Almost of the abusers are not psychotic and do not have criminal personalities; but many are lonely, unhappy, depressed, angry, dissatisfied, isolated and under great stress, or they have health problems that impair their ability to raise their children. Conclusion Human development is not merely an increase in body weight and height of a human being rather it is the total influence of environment and heredity. The behavior of a person to the environment depends mainly on maturation of his mind and capability of the body to out stand adverse condition, from the start of conception of a mother the time the ovum is fertilized by the sperm cell of the father is the beginning of the development Environment participates seventy percent and thirty percent of heredity in the development of a person, many factors should always to be considered to produce a human that will be an asset to the society. Work Cited Forgas, J. P. , and G. H. Bower.(1997) â€Å"Moods Effects on Personality Perception Judgements. Journals of Personality and Social Psychology. New Jersey. Papalia, D. E. and Olds, S. W. (1992) Human Development (International Edition) USA: McGraw Hill, Inc. Snyder, W. and Ooms, T. (Editors) (1998) Empowering Families, Helping Adolescents. U. S. A. : Diane Publishing. Vander, J. W. , Crander, T. L. , Crandell, C. H. (2007) Human Development (8th Ed. ) USA: McGraw Hill, Inc. Zayas, L. H. , Rojas, M. ,and Malgady, R. (1998). Alcohol and drug use, and depression among Hispanic men in early adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology.

Theo Georgiades

Dramatic irony is a feature of many plays. It occurs when the development of the plot allows the audience to have more insight about what is happening than some of the characters themselves. Iago is the source of much of the dramatic irony in Othello, informing the audience of his intentions. Characters may also speak in a dramatically ironic way, saying something that points to events to come without understanding the significance of their words. The opening scene is laced with dramatic irony, all of which centres on Iago. Roderigo fails to see that a man who admits he is a self-serving conman – â€Å"I am not what I am† – might also be fooling him, and Brabantio is unaware of the aptness of his line â€Å"Thou art a villain†. Iago has exposed himself very early and we watch fascinated as he manipulates others. In Act I, Scene III, we almost admire Othello's â€Å"free and open nature†, as Shakespeare states, but we are worried that Othello is gullible enough to be taken for a ride. His choice to place his wife in Iago's care is frightening, although it shows his high opinions of him. We are given two menacing hints about the future progress of Othello's marriage when the senators leave; Brabantio warns Othello against trusting Desdemona, while the first senator tells Othello to â€Å"use Desdemona well†. These lines are examples of dramatic irony; hints to the audience about the way the plot will develop. In Act III, Scene III, Othello is under pressure from the moment he enters. He is able to order his wife, although he seems nervous throughout his dialogue with her at the start of the scene. There is acknowledgment in his line â€Å"I will deny thee nothing†, as we are very well aware that this line is very true. We might feel that Othello is already on the threshold of disaster, even before Iago's words get to him properly. As Desdemona leaves Othello says â€Å"Excellent wretch [†¦] come again† (see lines III.3.90-2). These lines suggest that Othello will be completely lost if his love is shattered. Note the two words in these lines that hint at the trouble to come: â€Å"perdition† and â€Å"chaos†. The audience will be aware of the dramatic irony of these lines. Also found in Act III; Scene IV is packed with dramatic irony. This sad scene focuses on Desdemona. Emilia's purpose in this scene is to remark on what she sees and hears. She introduces the subject of Othello's jealousy, enabling us to value just how much naive confidence Desdemona has in her husband. We quickly learn that we can rely on her judgement; Emilia accurately guesses that it is jealous thoughts which trouble Othello. Emilia is also intelligent in her description of jealousy; â€Å"It is a monster/Begot upon itself, born on itself†. Later on in the play we will see the excellence of these words. Shakespeare fills this scene with examples of alarming dramatic irony, for example Desdemona's words at lines 25-9 and 30-1. In spite of the fact that she lies to her husband about the loss of the handkerchief, we are likely to feel much sympathy for Desdemona. She does not appreciate the danger she is in, signified by her words at line 30 and is alarmed by her husband's description of the handkerchief and his repeated requests to see it. Shakespeare's play Othello is a play where dramatic irony prevails practically everywhere. The audience is not just an observer, but a kind of judge one might say, having enough information to evaluate the significance of certain words stated by characters that are none the wiser; and can therefore sit back and enjoy the art in the villain's skills aswell the excellence of Shakespeare at play.

Freund

Creating Deviance Rules: A Macroscopic Model Author(s): Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markle Source: The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Spring, 1982), pp. 157-169 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4106327 Accessed: 16/11/2009 09:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=black. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Blackwell Publishing and Midwest Sociological Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Sociological Quarterly. http://www. jstor. org The SociologicalQuarterly (Spring1982):157-169 23 Deviance Rules: Creating A Macroscopic Model* RonaldJ. Troyer,Drake University GeraldE. Markle,Western MichiganUniversity In this paperwe proposea macrolevel the modelfor analyzing creationof deviance rules. We begin by placingthe phenomenon withinthe contextof the social factist and social definitionist the sociological traditions, identifying insightsand difficulties the socialproblems We rule creation. sugliterature for deviance presents explaining difficulties be resolvedby lacingthe processwithina can gest that the theoretical The consequent dialecticalmodel of deviance framework. sociologyof knowledge is that society is composedof a numberof designation based on the assumption in of definitions deviance generalinterests varying degreesof conflictwithprevailing outcomes previous of This balanceor accommodation contests. becomes representing vulnerable with the introduction increasein strainwhich is a potentialresource or for inte rest a The groupsdesiring new definition. utcomeof the ensuingconflictis seen as dependent the abilityof the combatants employresources the battle. in on to We concludeby identifying advantages model has for studying deviance the the the rulecreation process. of This is how I treat theory: it is somethingto guide our understanding the social world; it helps us throughthe labyrinthof the buzzingconfusion of conflictingideologies, and, most of all, theory liberatesus from dead facts and worn-out myths. Davis 1980:xv) But since those sociologistswho espouse a strong and explicit determinism,and those who practice the techniquesof â€Å"verstehen,† â€Å"empathy,†and â€Å"takingthe actor'spoint of view,† differ upon so very many issues, technical and otherwise, the present suggestions are more likely to be treated as a pollution of the boundarybetween schools of thought than as a pathway to agreement. (Barnes, 1974:83-84) For decades the sociology of deviance focus ed on rule violation. This approach produced works on rule violators, described which rules were violated and how they were violated, and, arguably, why they were violated. Largely neglected in this work was the process by which rules were created; that is, the process by which deviant categories and designations were constructed. Recently scholars have begun to focus attention on this issue, resulting in various empirical case studies or rationales for the import of the collective definition process (Nuehring and Markle, 1974; Conrad, 1975; Pfohl, 1977; Spector and Kitsuse, 1977; Levine, 1978; Schneider, 1978; Markle and Troyer, 1979; Conrad and Schneider, 1980. As with many deviance studies, these efforts have not produced an explicit framework relating rule creation to the broader theoretical conceptions of social processes and the structural order. As a remedy, ? 1982 by The Sociological Quarterly. All rights reserved. 0038-0253/82/1300-0157$00. 75 *The authors thank Roland Chilton, Ronald Kramer, Frances McCrea, Joseph W. Schneider, Malcolm Spector, and Mayer Zald for their helpful comments. Ronald J. Troyer's address is Department of Sociology, Dr ake University, Des Moines, Iowa 50311. 158 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY Collins has called for a radicaldeparture deviancestudies,statfrom traditional ing that â€Å"thenext step clearlymustbe to abolishthe field of devianceentirely,to and link its materialswith what is knownof generalexplanations stratification of politics† (1975:17). And Davis (1980:5) has observedthat the time has come â€Å"for the sociology of deviance to move into mainstreamtheory–based sociology. † What theoreticalform ought these investigations take? The developments in sociologicaltheoryin the past few decadeshave been focusedaroundtwo dominant perspectives. The nature of these approachescan best be graspedby referringto Ritzer's (1975) distinctionbetween the social factist and social definitionist paradigms. The social factist is primarilyconcernedwith the cause of social phenomena; thus the questionasked is a why question. By contrast,since the social definitionist more concernedwith process,the researchquestionis a is how question. In studyingdeviance,for example,the social factistshave focused on behaviordescribing extent and natureasking†Whydo thesepeople do it? † its focusedon the process On the otherhand, the social definitionists have primarily Howhavethesepersons as asking by whichpeoplecometo be defined deviant the label? † acquired deviant have and Webelieve the theoretical of that efforts thefactists thedefinitionists been useful. Such work, though clearly the creationand social constructionof of scholars,is necessaryif the study of rule creationis to lead to generalizations wider applicability. Towardthat e nd, we reviewsome relevantliterature, develop creation a sociologyof knowledgeframework, then presenta macrodeviance and model which attemptsto bridge the gap between the factist and definitionist erspectives. Literature between PerhapsArmandMauss has best capturedthe essence of the difference the two majortraditionalapproachesto social problemstheory. The essence of the scholarlydisagreement, noted, came down to one grouparguingthat â€Å"sohe cial problems are ‘objective'realities which generate collective behavior and political action†versus the view that â€Å"socialproblemsare essentiallygenerated by collectivebehaviorand politicalprocesses†(1977:602, emphasisin original). The former closely approximatesthe social factist approach,while the latter the represents social definitionist position. Social factist scholarshave tended to explain social problemsas the product of some environmentally condition. This tradition, disharmonious usuallytermed the strain explanation,has often focused on economic conditions (Oberschall, between differentgoals, differentvalues, 1973) but also includes discrepancies values and norms, knowledgeand actions, technologyand values, and so forth (Smelser, 1962: chap. 3). Smelser,for example,indicatesthat â€Å"norm-oriented movements†(definedas attemptsto restore,protect,modify,or createnormsin the name of a generalizedbelief,† 1962:270) often springfrom the following kindsof strain: Sometimes the appearanceof new knowledge initiates a movement to apply this knowledge in order to eradicate a condition previously taken for granted. (1962: 287) CreatingDeviance Rules 159 can betweennormative and standards actualsocialconditions proAny disharmony videthe basisfor a movement whoseobjective is to modifynorms. 1962:289) it Davis (1975) used a strainmodel to explain changesin the collectivedefinition of deviance. Whileseeingdeviancedefinitions productsof powerstruggles as between groups with new rules representing values of those groups able to the win state endorsement their values, Davis suggeststhat â€Å"the diffusionof new of knowledgeis a majorcause of collective searchesfor new normsin the modern world†(1975:53). Although strain h as been a populartheoreticalapproachfor studyingsome social problems(e. g. race riots), few empiricalstudiesof deviancedesignation have followed from this tradition. PerhapsChamblisscame close in the study of the creation of new rules against vagrancy. In his words, â€Å"The vagrancy statutes emerged as a result of changes in other parts of the social structure† (1964:69). Specifically,the strain was the breakdownof the serf system; vagrancy laws were the responseof the rulingclass to protect their interestsand bring the system back to harmony. Zurcheret al. (1977) have also pointed to the crucial role of strainin the emergenceof antipornography crusades. In the communities amongstatus studied,they found that as a resultof inconsistencies variables,the traditionalmiddle class was experiencingthreatsto its life-style. were attemptsto the Consequently, effortsto gain new rulesagainstpornography bolster the legitimacyof their life-style. In other words, in the strain tradition of new definitionsof devianceare seen as responsesto the introduction various kindsof socialchangein society. Insteadof focusingon the causes of social problems,such as strain(objective traditionstressthat collective acconditions), scholarsin the social definitionist tions emergefrominteraction, processes. As Blumerstated: especiallyinterpretive â€Å"social problemslie in and are productsof a process of collective definition† (1971:301). Spector and Kitsuse (1977) pursuedthis theme with their argument that scholarsmust focus on the claims-making the process to understand emergenceof a social problemor definitionof deviance. This processtraditionhas spawneda varietyof empiricalstudies,often focusdefinitionsof deviance. The ing on the creationof criminaland health-related best known of these studies is Becker's (1963) analysisof the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Arguingthat there was no majorincreasein the actualuse of the drug, which would be the focus of a strain explanation,Becker attributesthe new rule to the activitiesof a â€Å"moralentrepreneur. † (For other interpretations, see Dickson, 1968; Galliherand Walker, 1977, 1978. ) Other studies have argued that juvenile courts were not created as a responseto increasesin delinquency,as the strainmodel would predict,but ratheras part of a moralcrusade of (Platt, 1969) or as the productof organizational conflictbetweensupporters the police and probationdepartments (Hagan and Leon, 1977). In two studies of sex offensedefinitions,Rose (1977) and Roby (1969) also emphasizeprocessualexplanations. Roby examinedchanges in the New York State penal law on prostitution and found that the relative power of numerous interest groups and individuals determined the final version of the act. Similarly, Rose related the rise of the â€Å"rape problem† to the ideology and organizations generated by the women's liberation movement. 160 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY of The status politics interpretation the temperancemovementby Gusfield in (1963, 1967) representsanotherone of the majorprocessualapproaches the literature. Basically,Gusfieldsuggeststhat the attemptsto have a behaviordesignated as deviantare often symbolicbattles†betweenopposedsystemsof moralities, culturesand stylesof life† (1963:173). In otherwords,it is not the behavior per se or social conditionswhich cause the attemptto label the behavioras deviant. Instead the designationof deviance must be seen as a productof status of for conflict,the competition the officialassignment honorand prestigethrough of legitimation groupnorms. The creationof new health-related of designations deviancehas been reviewed Conrad and Schneider(1980). These authorshave set forth a â€Å"sequential by of model† and â€Å"grounded on generalizations† the medicalization deviance. Following Spectorand Kitsuse,they emphasizethe import,and not the accuracy,of medicalclaims-making, view claims as strategicdevices, and view medicalization which reflectpolitics and demedicalization devianceas â€Å"cyclicalphenomena† of of the day. In the most recent processualanalysis,Schursuggeststhat deviancemust be seen as a politicalphenomenon. Arguingthat there are at least two sides in any stigmacontest, Schursuggeststhat what is really at stake in deviancedefinitions is the power of the respectivegroups. Since â€Å"power,of any sort, is more like a processthan an object† (1980:8), â€Å"deviancedefiningis not a static event but a continuousand changingprocess†(1980:66). In summary,the literaturereviewed above suggests two models for understandingthe collectivedefinitionof deviance. The process approacharguesthat collectivedefinitionsare the productof interestgroupdynamics. By contrastthe are is for, strainexplanation that societaldisjunctions responsible or at least play a majorrole in, the emergence new definitions. of BeyondDichotomousModels During the past decade, a numberof scholarshave attemptedto move beyond the raditionalstrainor processmodels. For example,Mauss (1975; Maussand of Wolfe, 1977) arguesthat new social problemsor new definitions devianceare best understoodas productsof social movementsled by interestgroups. In this view, social arrangements permit collective behaviorwhich usually focuses on structural strainsbroughtaboutby social change. Thoughmanys trainsare present in society, problem definitionis the product of interest groups organizing social movementswhich push for acceptanceof their definitionof reality. Resource mobilizationtheory is another attemptto move beyond the strain and process models. This framework begins with the assumptionthat society is composedof competinggroups (economic, status, racial,etc. ). Strainis always present,since thereis conflictamonggroupsover whichvalues,norms,economic and arrangements, so forth are to prevailin the society. Group conflictand the of social movementsare analyzedin terms of the abilityof the colemergence lectivities to create and mobilize resources (Oberschall, 1973). A dynamic element is introduced into the analysis: authorities as well as challengers possess resources; deployment by one side requires some kind of response (mobilization of additional resources) from the other side, lest the cause be defaulted. CreatingDeviance Rules 161 Marxistapproaches have also triedto move beyondstrainand processmodels. of Initially Marxist/conflict interpretations new rules defining deviance suggested that they were â€Å"firstand foremosta reflectionof the interestsof the governingclass† (Chambliss,1974:37). In this view â€Å"thestate and legal systemare seen as instruments which can be manipulated,almost at will, by the capitalist class† (Beirne, 1979:379), an approachillustratedby Platt's (1974) reinterpretation of the establishmentof the juvenile court as a conscious effort by SomeMarxcapitaliststo preserveexistingpoliticaland economicarrangements. ists have assigneda more ambiguous role to the state (Block, 1978), suggesting that it exercises a â€Å"relativeautonomy†in its relationship the capitalistclass to the enactmentof legislationis not alwaysin (Beirne, 1979:379). Consequently, the objectiveinterestsof the capitalistclass, â€Å"but each case must be examined from and empirically on its own merits†(Beirne, 1979:380). Whatis important, this position,is that all of this occurswithinthe boundaries providedby the prevailing structuralrelations. Lauderdaleand Inveraritycriticizedthe early conflict approachesfor inadequately examiningthe politicalprocessunderlyingthe creationof deviance. Arguingthat â€Å"devianceis socially definedand as such is and changedthroughpoliticalprocesses†(1980a:36), they created,maintained, ask underwhat conditionsa form of actioncomes to be definedas deviant(Lauderdale, 1980:v). Noting previousstudiesare characterized a â€Å"preoccupation by with subjectiveinterestsand lack of attentionto measuringobjectiveinterests† (1980b:229), they call for attentionto objectiveconditionsunderlyingthe deviance definitionprocess. These efforts are advancesover analyses which attributenew definitionsof devianceto social psychological processesor to the activitiesof individuals(moral entrepreneurs). Here, at least, an effortis made to locate the deviancewithin the larger social context. However, several issues remainunresolved. First, although recent effortshave attemptedto find a role for objectiveconditions,the remainsunclear. At role of strainin the generation new deviancedesignations of one group of scholars,the social definitionists, suggestobjectivecondipresent tions are largely irrelevant,while others (especially Lauderdaleand Inverarity, to 1980b) are callingfor moreattention objectivefactors. A second majorunresolvedproblemis that none of the collectivedefinitionof deviance approachesexplains why specific behaviorsare selected for deviance silent on this issue. Finally, In categorization. fact, the literatureis remarkably the approachesdiscussedabove do not yet explainwhy some deviancecreation effortsare unsuccessful. is in this contextthat we believe that resourcemobiliIt zation theory could prove valuable in the study of rule creationand deviance designation. Not only does it point toward relevantvariablesfor study, it also to providesan empiricalframework assess previousmovementsand predictthe successor failureof ongoingmovements. Any model or theory of deviance creation must addressthese issues. More into a more genspecifically,a way must be found to subsumethese differences eral model rendering theoreticalissues amenableto empiricalevaluation. Toward a Sociology of Knowledge Given its theoretical import, it seems to us that there have been inexplicably few 162 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY studiesof rule creation. Marxists,subsuming issue withinthe superstructure, the have focusedon the creationof laws whichmaintainruling-class privilege. Strain scholarstreat new rules as responsesto changedsocial conditions(new knowledge, Davis, 1975). Only process scholars have directly addressedthe issue, viewing collective definitionsof devianceas â€Å"emergent productsof an interpretive process† (Hawkins and Tiedman, 1975:340), but studies in this tradition have not produceda rigoroustheoreticalexplanation. Instead, isolated studies have been characterized descriptiveand idiosyncratic detail withoutconnecby or tion to socialstructure generalsocialprocesses. In theirstudyof the medicalization deviance,Conradand Schneider(1980) of a solutionto the interactionist the pose impasse. Although labeling-interactionist of perspectivepresentsus with the questionsto ask concerningthe development deviancedesignations,† they note (1980:20), â€Å"it is a sociologyof knowledgeapproachthat is necessaryto answerthem. â€Å"We thinkof the sociologyof knowledge knowlas a study of the materialbasis of social ideas, categories,designations, and so forth. From this frameworkthe dependentvariablechanges: no edge, longer do we studyth e deviantactor;ratherwe attemptto locate historicallythe origins and the social forces which supportedand opposed the definitionof the deviant category. As Friedsonhas stated, the analysisshouldnot focus on â€Å"the etiology of some state so much as the etiology of the meaningof a state. Thus it asks questionslike: How does a state come to be considereddeviant? How does it come to be considered kindof devianceratherthan another? † one (1970: 215-16). deviant To developtheirknowledgeapproach, Conradand Schneider interpret behaviorsas social constructionsof reality. Adopting Berger and Luckmann's as (1966) scheme,they view realityconstruction a social processof threestages: The processbegins with the and internalization. xternalization, objectification, of construction a culturalproductor definition a personor collectionof perby becomespartof the generallyacceptedbody sons, continuesas the new definition of knowledge,and concludesas the individualsin publictake the new definition for grantedas partof theirworldview. We applaudConradand Schneider's explicit sociologyof knowledgeand find their social constructionist approachinsig htful. Their analysisof the historical contribution a dimensionsof the medicalization deviancerepresents significant of in by placingdeviancedesignations the broadersocial context. At the sametime, we are uncomfortable with the apparentabsenceof a theoreticalmodel pointing to a more explicit method of data analysis. History is all aroundus; we need the guidanceto separate datafromthe noise. between In his Ideology and Utopia (1936), Karl Mannheimdistinguishes two types of sociologyof knowledge:†on the one hand a theoryand on the other hand an historical-sociological methodof research†(p. 266). As a theorywith the sociology of knowledgehas been pursuedvigepistemologicalimplications, orously. Its methodologicalimplicationshave, however, remainedunderdevelhimselflargelyignoredthe methodological aspectsof knowledge oped. Mannheim theory, though he did write that â€Å"the most important task of the sociology of knowledge at present is to demonstrate its capacity in actual research in the historical-sociological realm† (p. 306). The methodological implications of Mannheim's work have been pursued most CreatingDeviance Rules 163 rigorouslyby David Bloor in his 1976 book Knowledgeand Social Imagery. Bloor contendsthat our concernshouldbe phenomenological; method,howour scientific. Thesociologistis concernedwith knowlever, ought to be rigorously edge,† he writes, â€Å"purelyas a naturalphenomenon†¦ instead of definingit as true or false belief, knowledgefor the sociologist is whatevermen take to be knowledge†(p. 2). Given that knowledgeis relativeand historicallyunstable, Bloor's task is to elucidatethe materialbasis of its variation. To accomplishthis in task, he proposesa methodwhich he calls the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge,to wit, that our analysisought to be causal, impartial,and symmetrical. While sociologists would not want to argue that social factors are the sole cause of belief, they should focus on how social conditionsproduceand reflect belief. In demandingan approachwhich is â€Å"impartial with respectto truthand success or failure†(p. 5), Bloor is not advofalsity, rationalityor irrationality, catinga value neutralposition. The task is not to crownwinnersor punishlosers but to understandboth sides. In that sense, Bloor's sociology is agnostic. Ultito even irrelevant, mate truth,in any sense of the phrase,is seen as peripheral, the analysis. Finally the strong programdemandsa symmetrical analysis. Too often scholarshave attempted analyzedeviantand normalbeliefs from differto ent stances, the former needing special explanation,while the latter–seen as logical, rational,or truthful-are seen to need no specialexplanation. We are interestedin using the sociology of knowledgeas a methodological to guide, as a way of using historicalmaterials build rigorousmodels. In a sense, then, we use Mannheimand Bloor to build a theoreticalmethod for empirical methods,especiallyas it appliesto socialhistory, study. The notion of theoretical has been developedby Stinchcombe(1978; see also Graff, 1980). Good social theory, he asserts,must be groundedin historicaldata. â€Å"Peopledo much better the theory,†he argues,†wheninterpreting historicalsequencethanthey do when they set out to do ‘theory'† (p. 17) and â€Å"thatthe centraloperationfor building theories of history is seeking causally significantanalogiesbetween instances† of Thuswe aremost interested the methodological in implications the sociology of knowledge:as a way of pointingtowardvariables,as a way of using history, as a way-in short-of structuring analysis. Suchan analyticstrategy,as a macroand rigorousversionof groundedtheory,ought to allow us to relateprescopic vious theoriesof devianceand our data in an iterativesort of way and, thus, to build and evaluatea model of how deviantcategoriesare designated. A DialecticalModelof DevianceDesignation In attemptingto addressthe theoreticaland methodologicalissues raised, we propose a dialecticalmodel of deviance designation. The model, presentedin to however,it attempts transcend Figure1, is influenced resourcemobilization; by arany single theory. We begin with the assumptionthat within the structural is composedof a numberof generalinterestsin varying rangements, everysociety degreesof conflict. Such groupsmay be of varyingnature:with inclusiveor exin clusive membership, broad or narrowfocus. Their concernwith the definition (p. 7). Figure 1. A DialecticalModel of DevianceDefiniti General vested & other interests Definition i – +- Strain General vested & other interests S/ Specific interests CreatingDeviance Rules 165 question,however,is either peripheral,quiescent,or not effectivein the public arena. The initial or prevailingdefinitionof a behavioras acceptableor unacceptable representsthe outcome of previousspecific interestgroup conflict;in other words, the balanceof the resourcesthe two sides were able to mobilize. or This balance or accommodation becomes vulnerablewith the introduction increase of strain. This developmentprovides existing general interest groups with a new resourceand opportunity claims-making. for Specificinterestgroups towardthe specific (includingthe state) form,or mobilize,or becomeredirected issue in question. Faced with a challenge to their interests,groups benefiting from the prevailingdefinitionrespondby marshaling their own resources. The battle of these groups to maintainor change a rule is joined, the outcome dependingon the balance of the mobilizedresources. To speak of the â€Å"balanceof mobilized resources†should not be seen as merely suggestinga simplisticaccountingbalance. Of coursethe matteris muchmore complex. For example,the efficientemployment resources–usingresourcesin an arenawherethey have of maximal impact-may be just as importantas quantity. The net result is that over a periodof time, at time2,the originaldefinitionsurvivesor a new designation takesits place. for In explicatingthe model, we make the following arguments its utility in collectivedefinition deviance: of examining issues raisedin the 1. The model addressesor handlesmanyof the theoretical literature. For example, existing sociological explanations assign central importance to, or ignore, the role of strain. The dialectical model directs the scholar'sattentionto the role of strainbut does not preclude,in fact demands, examinationof other social processes. In addition,by viewing the state as an interestedparty, albeit a group with unique resources,it is possibleto examine official actions without assumingthe existence of an all powerfulmonolithical the definitional outcomes. Furthermore, modelpermitsanalysis entitydetermining and explanationof outcomeswhereneitherside achievestotal victory. in 2. The dialecticalmodel is consistentwith the â€Å"strong program† the sociology of knowledge. As Bloor (1976) has requested,this modelis causal,impartial, and symmetrical. Figure 1 is time ordered;that is, variablesappearin causal sequence with one another. Moreoverthese sequences are made explicit, thus data analysis. The model thus allowsfor attemptsat statisticalmodelfacilitating of processvariablesby techniquesdevelopedfrom social factisttraditions. ing The model treats deviance rule creationsas naturalphenomena. Whethera rule is good or bad is irrelevant our analysis. RecallingGusfield'sstudyof the to temperancemovement,the validityof analysiswas independentof truthclaims about alcohol. Whetherthe drug is actuallyan aphrodisiac,a depressant,or a tool of the devil was essentiallyirrelevantto his conclusions. Taking such an it agnosticpositionhas methodological implications: allowsfor the formalmodelvariables. Moreover,Bloor'slast dictum-that analysis ing of phenomenological be symmetrical–hasobvious implicationsfor the dialecticalmodel. Note that interestsfor or againstany definitionare handledin the same way, and have the same causal input into the model. 166 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY 3. The model is dialectical. The theoryis timelessand has no end stage. Figure 1 shows only one referenceframe. But upon acceptanceof â€Å"Definition2,† general vested or other interestsare alreadyin place, advocatingfor or againsta new definition. Though the theory is sequential,in the sense that it goes forwardin remainuntime, the units of time are not specified. Some deviancedesignations for long periods of time, others move more rapidlythroughstages of changed and vindication. Conradand Schneider,thinkingalong the same stigmatization of and demedicalization deviance the lines, have conceptualized medicalization as â€Å"cyclical†(1980:271). We preferto use the termdialectical,in that it leaves ratherthan suggestinga rethe directionof the next redefinition problematic as turnto an originalpoint. nor4. Deviance and normalcyare not distinctcategories. We conceptualize coordinatesystem. As a prescribed as a point in a multidimensional guide malcy for conduct, a rule designatesthe limits of space aroundthe point in which a behavioris seen as deviant. behavioris viewed as normal. Outsidethis boundary, Now we can justify using the terms â€Å"rulecreation†and â€Å"deviancedesignation† more or less synonymously. The formerrefersto the boundaryitself, whichmay be thick or fuzzy; the latter refers to the space outside the boundary. Any behavioralboundary,in our view, is subject to cultural,temporal,or situational between factorswhich continuously defineit, or redefineit. Thus is the boundary deviancy and normalcycontinuouslydrawnand redrawn,and a behavioralresituation,but ratherby definitionoccursnot by quantumleaps, as an â€Å"either-or† or pulled througha system of space. In the dialecticalmodel the being pushed as pushesor pulls aremanifested strainor process. and analyticintentions 5. The model is macroscopic. Our conceptualization the collectivelevel. We do not directlyconsider,for example,the are clearly at motivationsof an individualactor or leader. For two reasonswe down-playthe importof, or perhapseven ignore,such questionsas: Did leaderX makedecision or Y sincerelyor cynically? Is he or she a moralentrepreneur a typical (but not concernedsuburbanite? First,we doubt,in social factistlanguage, authoritarian) that such variablesexplainvery much variancein deviancedesignation. The individual,qua individual,role in collective, historicprocessesis always limited. To Our second reasonis methodological: the extentthat psychologicalvariables are important,how are they to be measuredor assessed? For historicalstudies, motivationseems particularly Secondarysources,as well as various problematic. kinds of documents,seem suspecthere. Even in contemporary settings,people's of their own or others'motivationsare not trustworthy, especiallygiven reports or the vested or strategicinterestswhich can be served by lying, exaggerating, selectivelyforgetting. Rather,we focus on such variablesas strainand resources over time. and which can be operationalized measuredcomparably 6. The dialecticalmodel uses history. The model invites, perhapseven demands, a given rule to be placed in historical context. Moreover the data needed to test the model are historical, preferably in time series, data. The model is shaped by these data and is thus grounded and inductive as Conrad and Schnei- CreatingDeviance Rules 167 der (1980:265) have suggested. In that sense the dialecticalmodel is meant to evaluate,as much as formallytest, historicalsequencesof data. 7. The model is conflictoriented,though not necessarilyMarxist. Many deviance designations,particularlythose formalizedas laws, are amenableto a Marxist analysis consistentwith the model. Large sums of money or other resources are often used by ruling elites for maintenanceof deviance definitions do or, less often, change. However,some deviancedefinitions not seem to fit the Marxistmodel (see Markle and Troyer, 1979, or Hagan and Leon, 1977, for two such case studies). In the dialecticalmodel, vested or other interests(religious, ethnic, sex, status,etc. ) can militatefor, and indeedbe successfulat, creat(uneming new definitionsof deviance. Similarlystrainmightbe substructural strain ployment,new technology,etc. ), but the model allows for superstructural (e. g. , new knowledge). Using the DialecticalModel As an inductivetheory,the true test of the dialecticalmodel is its utility. Let us and suggesta few ways, then, how the model mightbe operationalized used. We in begin with the concept of strain,which can be operationalized severalways. In our own researchon cigarettesmoking(Markleand Troyer,1979) and estrolegen replacements(McCrea and Markle, 1980), strainwas the appearance, or dissemination new knowledge; strainin our researchon Laetrile of gitimation, (Markle and Petersen, 1980) was, among other factors, an increasedconcern over cancer. As new health-related knowledgeclaims, strain can be measured with variousbibliometric techniques. A simple content analysisof relevantarticles, over a period of years, from Index Medicus can be used to chart such knowledgeclaims. The perceivedlegitimacyof such claims can be assessedby the professionalprestige of the author or journal. Finally, the entry of such knowledgeclaims into the public arena can be measuredusing the New York Times Index, which Jenkins and Perrow (1977) found highly effective,or by one of severalnewspaperdata banks (e. g. , Newsbank)now in existence. After looking at strain,it is easy enoughto identifyspecificinterestsinvolved in redefinition. Such organizations groups will have appearedas recipients, or sponsors,aggrievedparties,etc. , in news accountsor scholarlycitation. The resources of these groups can be measuredin severalways. The Encyclopediaof Associations, updated almost yearly, lists purportedmembershipsand other for simple demographics manysuchgroups. Moreover,most interestgroupshave which are usuallyeasy to obtain, often at literatureor even regularpublications no cost. When interests are corporate,much informationon resourcescan be gleaned from annual reports or, with somewhatmore effort, from regulatory In agenciessuch as the Securitiesand ExchangeCommission. ase studieswhere is an interestedparty, vast amounts of official statistics may be government available (see, e. g. , Markle and Troyer, 1979). Moreover,the researchercan use the Freedomof Information Act to obtain a deep windowinto government actions and resourcesin variousdeviancedesignations. Throughpublic records and other availabledata, every conce pt in the dialecticalmodel can be operationalized. Indeed,to measureresourcesin comparable ways, we have suggested of the development a researchprotocol (Markleand Petersen,1981). 168 THE SOCIOLOGICALQUARTERLY A Final Word iancearecreated changed, beenneglected socialtheory research. and or in has We believethat neglectcomes from theoretical The misdirection. dialectical thesedifficulties. to model,whichis knowledge based,is ourattempt ameliorate Becauseit attempts integrate traditional the theoryinvites to two approaches, both philosophical- empirical-based and criticisms. Thoughwe welcomethe we The in interested thelatter. realtestof thedialectical former, areparticularly modelis whether works. it Andwhether not it workscan onlybe judged or by it holdingit up to the lightof, and adjudicating with,historicaland contemporary A crucialelementof social change and conflict,why and how definitionsof de- research. REFERENCES Barnes, Barry. 1974. ScientificKnowledgeand SociologicalTheory. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. Becker, Howard S. 1963. Outsiders:Studiesin the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press. and the critiqueof Marxismon law and crime. † Social Problems26:373Beirne, Piers. 1979. â€Å"Empiricism 85. Berger, Peter L. , and Thomas Luckmann. 1966. The Social Constructionof Reality. Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday. Block, Fred. 1978. â€Å"The rulingclass does not rule. † Pp. 128-40 in RichardQuinney,ed. CapitalistSociety: Readingsfor a CriticalSociology. Homewood,Ill. : Dorsey. Bloor, David. 1976. Knowledgeand Social Imagery. London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul. Blummer,Herbert. 1962. â€Å"Society as symbolic interaction. â€Å"Pp. 179-92 in Arnold Rose, ed. , Human Behaviorand Social Processes. Boston:HoughtonMiffltin. 1971. â€Å"Socialproblemsas collectivebehavior. â€Å"Socia l Problems18:298-306. —. Chambliss,William J. 1964. â€Å"A sociologicalanalysisof the law of vagrancy. â€Å"Social Problems12:67-77. . 1974. â€Å"The state, the law, and the definitionof behavior as criminalor delinquent. â€Å"Pp. 7-42 in Daniel Glaser, ed. Handbookof Criminology. Bobbs-Merrill. Indianapolis: Collins, Randall. 1975. ConflictSociology: TowardAn ExplanatoryScience. New York: AcademicPress. Conrad, Peter. 1975. â€Å"The discovery of hyperkinesis:notes on the medicalizationof deviant behavior. † Social Problems23:12-21. , and JosephW. Schneider. 1980. Deviance and Medicalization:From Badnessto Sickness. St. Louis: Mosby. Davis, F. James. 1975. â€Å"Beliefs, values, power, and public definitionsof deviance. â€Å"Pp. 50-59 in F. James Davis and RichardStivers,eds. , The CollectiveDefinitionof Deviance. New York: Free Press. of Davis, Nanette J. 980. SociologicalConstruction Deviance:Perspectivesand Issues in the Field. 2d ed. Dubuque,Iowa: Wm. C . Brown. and morality:an organizational perspectiveon a moral crusade. † Dickson, Donald T. 1968. â€Å"Bureaucracy Social Problems16:143-56. Freidson,Eliot. 1970. Proessionof Medicine. New York: Dodd, Mead. Galliher,John F. 1978. â€Å"The politics of systematicresearcherror: the case of the Federal Bureauof Narcotics as a moralentrepreneur. † Crimeand Social Justice10:29-33. , and Allyn Walter. 1977. â€Å"The puzzle of the social origins of the MarihuanaTax Act of 1937. † Social Problems24:367-76. TheoreticalMethodsin Social History. American Graft, Harvey J. 1980. Review of ArthurJ. Stinchcombe, Journalof Sociology85:1442-46. Gusfield, Joseph. 1963. Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the AmericanTemperanceMovement. Urbana: Universityof Illinois Press. -. 1967. â€Å"Moral passage: the symbolic process in public designationsof deviance. â€Å"Social Problems 15:175-88. delinquency:social history, political ideology, and Hagan, John, and Jeffery Leon. 1977. â€Å"Rediscovering the sociologyof law. † AmericanSociologicalReview42:587-98. CreatingDevianceRules 169 Hawkins, Richard, and Gard Tiedman. 975. The Creation of Deviance. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill. Jenkins, J. Craig, and Charles Perrow. 1977. â€Å"Insurgencyand the powerless: farm worker movements (1946-1972). â€Å"AmericanSociologicalReview42:249-68. Lauderdale,Pat, ed. 1980. A Political Analysis of Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof MinnesotaPress. , and James Inverarity. 1980a. â€Å"From apoli ticalto political analysesof deviance. â€Å"Pp. 15-44 in Pat Lauderdale,ed. , A Political Analysis of Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof MinnesotaPress. . 1980b. â€Å"Afterword: suggestionfor the study of the political dimensionsof deviancedefinition. Pp. 221-37 in Pat Lauderdale, ed. , A Political Analysisof Deviance. Minneapolis:Universityof Minnesota. Levine, Harry Gene. 1978. â€Å"The discoveryof addiction: changingconceptionsof habitual drunkenness in America. â€Å"Journalof Studieson Alcohol 39:143-74. McCrea, Frances B. , and Gerald E. Markle. 1981. â€Å"The estrogen replacementcontroversyin the United States and Great Britain: differentanswersto the same question? â€Å"Paper presentedat the AnnualMeeting of the Societyfor the Social Studiesof Science,Toronto. Mannheim, Karl. 1936. Ideology and Utopia. Translatedby Louis With and Edward Shils. New York: Harcourt,Brace and World. Markle, Gerald E. , and James C. Petersen. 1980. Politics, Science, and Cancer: The LaetrilePhenomenon. Boulder,Colo. : WestviewPress. , 1981. â€Å"Controversiesin science and technology: a protocol for comparativeresearch. † Science Technologyand HumanValues 6:25-30. Markle, Gerald C. , and Ronald J. Troyer. 1979. â€Å"Smoke gets in your eyes: cigarettesmoking as deviant behavior. â€Å"Social Problems26:611-25. J. Mauss, ArmandL. 1975. Social Problemsas Social Movements. Philadelphia: B. Lippincott. Sociology6:602-606. . 1977. Reviewof social problemsbooks. Contemporary , and Julie Camile Wolfe. 1977. This Land of Promises. Philadelphia:J. B. Lippincott. of Neuhring, Elaine, and Gerald E. Markle. 1974. â€Å"Nicotine and norms: the re-emergence a deviant behavior. † Social Problems21:513-26. Oberschall,Anthony. 1973. Social Conflictand Social Movements. EnglewoodCliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall. Pfohl, StephenJ. 1977. â€Å"The discoveryof child abuse. † Social Problems24:310-23. Platt, Anthony M. 1969. The Child Savers: The Inventionof Delinquency. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press. 1974. â€Å"The triumphof benevolence:the originsof the juvenilejustice systemin the United States. -. Pp. 356-89 in RichardQuinney,ed. , CriminalJusticein America. Boston: Little, Brownand Company. Ritzer, George. 1975. Sociology: A MultipleParadigmScience. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Roby, Pamela A. 1969. â€Å"Politics and criminallaw: revisionof the New York State penal law on prostitution. † Social Problems17:83-109. Rose, Vicki McNic kle. 1977. â€Å"The rise of the rape problem. â€Å"Pp. 167-95 in ArmandL. Mauss and Julie CamileWolfe, eds. , This Land of Promises. Philadelphia: B. Lippincott. J. Social Schneider,Joseph W. 1978. â€Å"Deviant drinkingas disease: alcoholismas a social accomplishment. Problems25:361-72. Schur,EdwinM. 1980. The Politics of Deviance: StigmaContestsand the Uses of Power. EnglewoodCliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall. Smelser, Neil J. 1962. Theory of CollectiveBehavior. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. Social Problems. Menlo Park, Calif. : Cummings. Spector,Malcolm,and John T. Kitsuse. 1977. Constructing Stinchcombe,ArthurL. 1978. TheoreticalMethodsin Social History. New York: AcademicPress. Robert G. Cushing,and CharlesG. Bowman. 1977. â€Å"The antiZurcher,Louis A. , R. George Kirkpatrick, a pornography campaign: symboliccrusade. â€Å"Social Problems19:217-38.